Pesticide residues on milkweed and strawberry at small farms and non-target effects of two fungicides on monarch butterfly caterpillars
Hastings AP, Par VH, McArt SH and others. PeerJ, February 2026.
Read the paper Free to read · doi:10.7717/peerj.20729
What this paper is about
Foliage and flowers of strawberry and of common milkweed were collected on two small farms in central New York, inside the crop and along the field margins, and tested for residues of 94 agrochemicals.
Thirteen fungicides, herbicides and insecticides turned up, mostly at low concentrations and more often on the strawberry than on the milkweed. Residues were higher early in the season and higher on leaves than on flowers. The study also tested two of the fungicides directly on monarch caterpillars.
Summarised here from the abstract below. Not the authors’ words.
Abstract
Concern over insect declines has increased attention on the effects of pesticide residues on native insects. We collected strawberry (target) and common milkweed (non-target) foliage and flowers on two small Central New York farms, within crop fields as well as field margins, and analyzed the tissues for pesticide residues of 94 agrochemicals. We found quantifiable levels of 13 fungicides, herbicides, and insecticides, mostly at low concentrations (typically less than 200 ppb where detected), and more often on strawberry than milkweed. We generally found higher pesticide residue levels early in the season (June vs. July) and on leaves compared to flowers. Residue levels in fields did not differ strongly from margins but pesticide drift may have left low-level residues on milkweed leaves and flowers in margins. Given that non-target effects of fungicides are understudied, we selected two prevalent fungicides found in this study (cyprodinil and difenoconazole) and used them in laboratory assays to assess impacts on early instar monarch (Danaus plexippus) caterpillar feeding, growth, and growth efficiency on common milkweed, along with two other milkweed (Asclepias) species. We tested the hypothesis that exposure to pesticides may be most impactful on poor quality host plants. For both fungicides, exposure at the highest doses (>100,000 ppb) reduced feeding, with the strongest effect on Asclepias asperula, the lowest quality host plant. Effects on caterpillar growth were similarly negative and consistent across host plant species. Finally, effects of fungicides on gross growth efficiency of caterpillars were negative, but dependent on the fungicide. Effects of cyprodinil were stronger than difenoconazole, but at realistically low concentrations there was little effect of either fungicide. Nonetheless, higher concentrations of these chemicals, approximating those experienced directly after fungicide application, may impact non-target species. The observed interaction of fungicides with host plant species highlights the importance of considering resource quality in the assessment of non-target effects of pesticides.
Abstract reproduced from the published paper, which is licensed CC BY. Copyright remains with the authors.
Key terms
Milkweeds in this paper
- Butterfly Weed Asclepias tuberosa
- Common Milkweed Asclepias syriaca
- Antelope Horns Asclepias asperula
Find the paper
Cite this page
This page is licensed CC BY 4.0. Quote it, adapt it and reuse it, including commercially, as long as you credit Milkweed USA and link back.
Milkweed USA. (2026). Pesticide residues on milkweed and strawberry at small farms and non-target effects of two fungicides on monarch butterfly caterpillars (listing). Retrieved DATE, from https://milkweedusa.com/research/pesticide-residues-on-milkweed-and-strawberry-at-small-farms-2026/
"Pesticide residues on milkweed and strawberry at small farms and non-target effects of two fungicides on monarch butterfly caterpillars (listing)." Milkweed USA, 2026, https://milkweedusa.com/research/pesticide-residues-on-milkweed-and-strawberry-at-small-farms-2026/. Accessed DATE.
Milkweed USA. "Pesticide residues on milkweed and strawberry at small farms and non-target effects of two fungicides on monarch butterfly caterpillars (listing)." Last modified 2026-08-01. Accessed DATE. https://milkweedusa.com/research/pesticide-residues-on-milkweed-and-strawberry-at-small-farms-2026/.
@misc{milkweedusa_researchpesticideresiduesonm,
title = {Pesticide residues on milkweed and strawberry at small farms and non-target effects of two fungicides on monarch butterfly caterpillars (listing)},
author = {{Milkweed USA}},
year = {2026},
url = {https://milkweedusa.com/research/pesticide-residues-on-milkweed-and-strawberry-at-small-farms-2026/},
note = {Accessed DATE}
}